p268
能力の平等性
C D. Bird and N J. Emery
Insightful problem solving and creative tool modification by captive nontool-using rooks
PNAS 106 10370 (2009)
*Rooks that do not appear to use tools in the wild are capable of insightful problem solving related to sophisticated tool use, including spontaneously modifying and using a variety of tools, shaping hooks out of wire, and using a series of tools in a sequence to gain a reward.
*The ability to represent tools may be a domain-general cognitive capacity rather than an adaptive specialization and questions the relationship between physical intelligence and wild tool use.
*See for example Fig 6
Humans are not more intelligent but more socially tuned than apes
Herrmann et al.
Humans Have Evolved Specialized Skills of Social Cognition: The Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis
S 317 1360 (2007)
Chimpanzees and orangutans, as well as to 2.5-year-old human children before literacy and schooling are studied in this paper.
Supporting the cultural intelligence hypothesis and contradicting the hypothesis that humans simply have more ``general intelligence.'' we found that the children and chimpanzees had very similar cognitive skills for dealing with the physical world but that the children had more sophisticated cognitive skills than either of the ape species for dealing with the social world.
上の論文はいわゆる「知的能力」がわれわれや類人猿に系統的に近いほど「高い」と無条件には言えないことを教えている．じっさい，カラスの方がチンパンジーよりも道具を使う能力は高いかもしれないのである．次の論文参照(サルなどとの比較もいろいろ書いてある)：
9 A.H Taylor, G.R Hunt, F.S Medina, and R.D Gray
Do New Caledonian crows solve physical problems through causal reasoning ?
PRS 276 247
(BG) The trap-tube paradigm has been used as the benchmark test for investigating whether non-human animals use causal reasoning to solve physical problems. In this task an individual must extract food from a horizontal tube in a direction that avoids a trap.
(BG) In the wild, New Caledonian crows, Corvus moneduloides , forage in holes for grubs and insects using a variety of tools with a level of sophistication sometimes surpassing that of the great apes (Hunt 1996 , 2000a , b ; Hunt & Gray 2004 ).
*Three out of six crows solved the initial trap-tube within 150 trials. These crows continued to avoid the trap when the arbitrary features that had previously been associated with successful performances were removed. However, they did not avoid the trap when a hole and a functional trap were in the tube.
*In contrast to a recent primate study, the three crows then solved a causally equivalent but
visually distinct problem—the trap-table task. The performance of the three crows across the four transfers made explanations based on chance, associative learning, visual and tactile generalization, and previous dispositions unlikely.
*New Caledonian crows can solve complex physical problems by reasoning both causally and analogically about causal relations. Causal and analogical reasoning may form the basis of the New Caledonian crow's exceptional tool skills.
*They seem better than apes.
YouTubeでNew Caledonian Crowを検索するといろいろある．たとえば上記以外にも
次の論文ではNew Caledonian Crowは道具を組み合わせて使うとき「洞察」とでも言ってよいものを持っていること示している:
Alex H. Taylor, Douglas Elliffe, Gavin R. Hunt, and Russell D. Gray
Complex cognition and behavioural innovation in New Caledonian crows
PRS 277 2637 (2010)
New Caledonian crows with a novel three-stage meta-tool problem. The task involved three distinct stages:
(ii) using the short stick as a meta-tool to extract a long stick from a toolbox, and finally
(iii) using the long stick to extract food from a hole.
Crows with previous experience of the behaviours in stages 1–3 linked them into a novel sequence to solve the problem on the first trial. Crows with experience
of only using string and tools to access food also successfully solved the problem.
This innovative use of established behaviours in novel contexts was not based on resurgence, chaining and conditional reinforcement. Instead, the performance was consistent with the transfer of an abstract, causal rule: `out-of-reach objects can be accessed using a tool’.
YouTubeで見ることができる．
鳴き声について「文化」があって悪くないという論文もある．
LUCAS A. BLUFF, ALEX KACELNIK and CHRISTIAN RUTZ
Vocal culture in New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides
Biol J Linnaean Soc 101 767 (2010).
The New Caledonian crow Corvus moneduloides :
(1) possesses the capacity for social learning of vocalizations (experimental evidence in the form of a captive subject that reproduces human speech and other anthropogenic noises) and
(2) exhibits significant large-scale, population-level variation in its vocalizations (cross-island playback experiments, with analyses controlling for a substantial set of potentially confounding variables).
In combination, this provides strong evidence for the existence of ‘ﾔculture’ in these birds.
道具を使うなどということは必要とあればだれでもやるのだ，という意味のことを書いたが，道具使用とphysical intelligenceにはそれほど相関がないのではないかという総説もある;
9 Nathan J Emery, Nicola S Clayton Tool use and physical cognition in birds and mammals
CONB 19 27
(BG) In the wild, chimpanzees are the most prolific and proficient tool users, yet their understanding of tools in the laboratory is surprisingly poor.
*Habitual tool use is not a clear predictor of physical intelligence, for either instrumental
tool tasks or tests of planning.
タコがココナッツの殻を防御用に持ち歩くという論文がある
Finn et al., Defensive tool use in a coconut-carrying octopus
CB 19 R1069 (2009)
Among invertebrates the acquisition of items that are deployed later has not previously
been reported.
We repeatedly observed soft-sediment dwelling octopuses carrying around coconut shell halves, assembling them as a shelter only when needed. Whilst being carried, the shells offer no protection and place a requirement on the carrier to use a novel and cumbersome form of locomotion--stilt-walking.
Watch the movies.
ごく最近道具使用についてのminireviewが出た:
Amanda Seed, Richard Byrne, Animal Tool-Use
Curr Biol 20 R1032 (2010).
We should be kind to animals because it makes better humans of us all.
--- Jane Goodall
知的能力の平等性で，上に書いたことは，あたかもヒトを「上」に置いたときに他の動物たちを「引き上げ」ようとする見解と見られたかもしれないが，もちろん意図は「平等性」にある．以下に引用した解説では，ヒトの「あたかも高等な行動」が実は単純な知的能力で説明できてしまうのではないか，少なくともそのような方向の研究がおろそかにされているのではないか，ということをのべている．たとえば，洞察，というようなものが特殊なものである，というのはウソであろう．「洞察」は他の動物にも見られていいのである．
Complexity from simplicity in cognition
Sara J. Shettleworth
Clever animals and killjoy explanations in comparative psychology
Trends Cog Sci 14 477 (2010)
Human behavior expresses unconscious responses to simple cues similar to those
that influence other species. In effect, ‘anthropomorphic’ explanations are not always correct even for humans.
＊Insight may be deconstructed as interconnection, combining old behaviors in new ways, ex. pigeons extinguished for flying with banana+box, metatool uses, etc.
＊Recent comparative research also shows that some simple processes demonstrated first in nonhuman species can be revealed in humans with nonverbal tests.